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Meditation

Pooled trials find mindfulness programs ease stress, anxiety and depression against no program. Against other active programs, the edge shrinks or disappears. An 8-week course matched escitalopram for anxiety disorders in one trial. Office blood pressure fell 5 to 9 mm Hg. Brain structure did not change. Unpleasant experiences during practice were reported by 8.3% across studies.

Add to Bio HackChecked 2026-11-13
Status
A practice, not a regulated product.
Also called
mindfulness, mindfulness meditation, mindfulness-based stress reduction, MBSR, mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, MBCT, Transcendental Meditation, TM, mantra meditation, focused attention meditation, open monitoring meditation, body scan, vipassana, insight meditation, loving-kindness meditation, Zen meditation
Practiced for
stress, anxiety, depression, mood, sleep, blood pressure, chronic pain, back pain, focus, attention, memory, cortisol, inflammation, aging, telomeres, brain growth, gray matter, resilience, well-being

Strong several reviews agree · Moderate one review or consistent trials · Limited one or a few small studies · Untested no study in people, listed with what it rests on

Shown to help10

Reported risks3

What people practice it for, and what was found

Shown to help10

Strong

Stress and distress in people without a diagnosis, against no program

Shown to lower anxiety, depression and distress in adults without a diagnosis, by about half a standard deviation, against no program or a waiting list.

Compared with no intervention [1]; control groups the source abstract does not describe [2]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Across 136 trials in nonclinical settings, mindfulness programs improved anxiety (SMD -0.56, 95% CI -0.80 to -0.33), depression (SMD -0.53, 95% CI -0.72 to -0.34), distress (SMD -0.45, 95% CI -0.58 to -0.31) and well-being (SMD 0.33, 95% CI 0.11 to 0.54) against no intervention, 1 to 6 months after the program ended. Prediction intervals for all four crossed zero [1]. In 29 studies of mindfulness-based stress reduction in healthy adults, the between-group effect was g = 0.53 (95% CI 0.41 to 0.64), with large effects on stress and moderate effects on anxiety, depression and distress, maintained at an average 19 weeks of follow-up [2].
Population
11,605 adults in 136 trials in 29 countries, 77% women, aged 18 to 73 [1]. 2,668 healthy adults in 29 studies [2].
Sources
[1], [2]
Caveats
GRADE confidence was moderate to very low, mainly from inconsistency and high risk of bias. Only the effect on distress remained when higher-risk trials were excluded, and US trials reported smaller effects [1]. Heterogeneity was high [2]. Nobody can be blinded to a meditation course.
Moderate

Anxiety

Shown to ease anxiety in adults with health conditions against time-matched control programs, and an 8-week course matched escitalopram in one trial of anxiety disorders.

Compared with active control programs matched for time and attention [3]; escitalopram 10 to 20 mg [4]

The numbers and sources
Effect
In trials with active controls, mindfulness programs improved anxiety by an effect size of 0.38 (95% CI 0.12 to 0.64) at 8 weeks and 0.22 (95% CI 0.02 to 0.43) at 3 to 6 months, rated moderate evidence [3]. In 208 adults with a diagnosed anxiety disorder, anxiety severity fell 1.35 points with mindfulness-based stress reduction and 1.43 with escitalopram on a 7-point clinician scale. The difference of -0.07 (95% CI -0.38 to 0.23) met the trial's noninferiority margin [4].
Population
3,515 participants in 47 trials of adults with clinical conditions [3]. 208 adults with a diagnosed anxiety disorder, 75% women, mean age 33, at 3 US academic centers [4].
Sources
[3], [4]
Caveats
The escitalopram trial had no placebo or waiting list arm, so it shows the two did not differ, not how much either did beyond time and expectation [4]. The effect against active controls was small and smaller at follow-up [3].
Strong

Symptoms of psychiatric disorders

Shown to ease disorder-specific symptoms more than no treatment and other active controls in pooled trials, and no differently from established treatments such as CBT or medication.

Compared with no treatment, minimal treatment, nonspecific and specific active controls, and evidence-based treatments [5]; waiting list, other active treatments, CBT and medication [6]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Across 142 samples, mindfulness programs were superior at the end of treatment to no treatment (d = 0.55), minimal treatment (d = 0.37), nonspecific active controls (d = 0.35) and specific active controls (d = 0.23), and did not differ from evidence-based treatments (d = -0.004). The most consistent evidence was for depression, pain conditions, smoking and addictive disorders [5]. Across 209 studies, effects were g = 0.53 against waiting list and g = 0.33 against other active treatments, with no difference from traditional CBT or behavioral therapies (g = -0.07) or medication (g = 0.13, 3 studies) [6].
Population
12,005 participants with psychiatric disorders [5]. 12,145 participants in 209 studies [6].
Sources
[5], [6]
Caveats
The two reviews overlap in the trials they pool. The equivalence with medication rests on 3 studies [6]. Effects shrink as the comparison becomes more active [5].
Strong

Depression and depressive relapse

Shown to ease depression symptoms modestly against active control programs, and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy cut the risk of relapse within 60 weeks by about 31%.

Compared with active control programs [3]; no intervention and nonspecific active controls [1]; usual care and other active treatments including antidepressants [7]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Against active controls, depression improved by an effect size of 0.30 (95% CI 0.00 to 0.59) at 8 weeks and 0.23 (95% CI 0.05 to 0.42) at 3 to 6 months [3]. In nonclinical settings, SMD -0.53 against no intervention and -0.46 against nonspecific active controls [1]. In individual patient data from 9 trials of people with recurrent depression in remission, mindfulness-based cognitive therapy lowered the risk of relapse within 60 weeks against no such therapy (hazard ratio 0.69, 95% CI 0.58 to 0.82) and against active treatments including antidepressants (hazard ratio 0.79, 95% CI 0.64 to 0.97) [7].
Population
3,515 participants in 47 trials [3]. Adults in nonclinical settings [1]. 1,258 patients with recurrent depression, mean age 47, 75% women [7].
Sources
[3], [1], [7]
Caveats
The lower confidence limit at 8 weeks sits at zero [3]. Relapse prevention was studied in people in full or partial remission, not in current depression, and the effect was larger in those with more residual symptoms [7].
Strong

Chronic pain

Shown to ease chronic pain slightly in pooled trials rated low in quality. In back pain, an 8-week course matched CBT and beat usual care.

Compared with treatment as usual, passive controls, and education or support groups [8]; active control programs [3]; usual care and cognitive behavioral therapy [9]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Across 30 trials, pain fell more with mindfulness meditation than with controls (SMD 0.32, 95% CI 0.09 to 0.54), smaller in trials rated fair or higher in quality (SMD 0.19, 95% CI 0.03 to 0.34, 19 trials) [8]. Against active controls, pain improved by an effect size of 0.33 (95% CI 0.03 to 0.62) [3]. In 342 adults with chronic low back pain, clinically meaningful improvement in function at 26 weeks reached 60.5% with mindfulness-based stress reduction, 57.7% with CBT and 44.1% with usual care (relative risk against usual care 1.37, 95% CI 1.06 to 1.77, and against CBT 0.95) [9].
Population
3,536 adults with chronic pain from migraine, headache, back pain, osteoarthritis or nerve pain in 38 trials [8]. 342 adults aged 20 to 70 with chronic low back pain [9].
Sources
[8], [3], [9]
Caveats
Heterogeneity was substantial (I² 77.6%) and evidence for pain was rated low quality [8]. The back pain course included gentle yoga as well as meditation [9].
Moderate

Sleep quality

Shown to improve sleep quality slightly more than time-matched control programs in one meta-analysis, and no differently from established sleep treatments.

Compared with nonspecific active controls matched for time and attention [10]; evidence-based sleep treatments [10]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Against nonspecific active controls, sleep quality improved after the program (ES 0.33, 95% CI 0.17 to 0.48) and at follow-up (ES 0.54, 95% CI 0.24 to 0.84), at moderate strength of evidence. Against specific active controls such as evidence-based sleep treatments there was no difference after the program (ES 0.03, 95% CI -0.43 to 0.49) or at follow-up (ES -0.14) [10]. An earlier review found low or insufficient evidence for any effect on sleep [3].
Population
1,654 participants in 18 trials [10]. 47 trials [3].
Sources
[10], [3]
Caveats
The reviewers call the findings preliminary [10]. Sleep was mostly self-rated.
Moderate

Blood pressure

Shown to lower office blood pressure by about 5 to 9 mm Hg systolic in pooled trials. One review found no significant fall in out-of-office readings.

Compared with control groups the source abstract does not describe [11]; control arms the source abstract does not describe [12]; treatment as usual, waiting list, and active programs such as relaxation training, yoga, social support and health education [13]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Transcendental Meditation lowered systolic pressure by 4.7 mm Hg (95% CI -7.4 to -1.9) and diastolic by 3.2 mm Hg (95% CI -5.4 to -1.3) against control in 9 trials, with similar results in high-quality trials and people with hypertension [11]. Mindfulness-based stress reduction lowered office systolic pressure by 6.64 mm Hg and diastolic by 2.47 mm Hg after the program, with no significant reduction in 24-hour, daytime or asleep pressure [12]. Across 12 trials of mindfulness programs, systolic pressure fell 9.12 mm Hg (95% CI -12.18 to -6.05) and diastolic 5.66 mm Hg. Against waiting list alone the difference was not significant [13]. An American Heart Association statement rated Transcendental Meditation Class IIB and other meditation techniques Class III for lowering blood pressure [14].
Population
9 randomized trials [11]. 12 trials in people with elevated blood pressure or hypertension [12]. 715 people with prehypertension or hypertension in 12 trials [13].
Sources
[11], [12], [13], [14]
Caveats
Only one of 12 trials was at low risk of bias, and out-of-office readings came from few trials [12]. Heterogeneity was high (I² 84%) [13]. The Transcendental Meditation trials were rated from low to high quality [11].
Moderate

Cortisol

Shown to lower cortisol in pooled trials. Blood cortisol fell only in people with a physical illness, and saliva cortisol did not fall significantly in one review.

Compared with control groups [15]; inactive controls and active controls [16]

The numbers and sources
Effect
In 10 trials using blood samples, meditation had a significant medium effect on cortisol from before to after against control, present only in samples with a somatic illness. In 21 trials using saliva the effect was small and not significant [15]. Across 34 between-group comparisons, mindfulness-based stress reduction lowered cortisol more than controls (g = -0.38, 95% CI -0.56 to -0.21), against inactive controls g = -0.42 and against active controls g = -0.29 (95% CI -0.54 to -0.04) [16].
Population
Participants in 10 randomized trials with blood samples and 21 with saliva samples [15]. 2,059 participants in 39 studies [16].
Sources
[15], [16]
Caveats
The second review pools blood and saliva samples and found unexplained heterogeneity [16]. Cortisol varies across the day, and timing of samples differs between trials.
Moderate

Focus, memory and thinking skills, against no program

Shown to improve thinking skills very slightly in one meta-analysis, mainly executive function and working memory, against inactive comparisons such as a waiting list.

Compared with inactive comparators [19]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Pooling all cognitive domains, mindfulness programs outperformed comparators (g = 0.15, 95% CI 0.05 to 0.24). By domain, effects appeared for executive function (g = 0.15) and working memory (g = 0.23) only. Programs outperformed inactive comparators but not active ones [19].
Population
2,931 adults in 56 randomized studies [19].
Sources
[19]
Caveats
Most trials had unclear risk of bias, and some p-values were unreliable [19].
Limited

Telomerase and cell aging

Small trials found telomerase activity in blood immune cells rose with mindfulness meditation, pooled across 4 trials and 190 people.

Compared with control groups in 4 randomized trials the source abstract does not describe [20]

The numbers and sources
Effect
A meta-analysis of 4 randomized trials found increased telomerase activity in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (d = 0.46) [20].
Population
190 participants in 4 trials [20].
Sources
[20]
Caveats
Telomerase activity is an enzyme measure, not telomere length, lifespan or a health outcome. Four trials is a small base.

Mixed results2

Moderate

Stress and distress, against other active programs

Mixed results: against time-matched control programs, pooled trials found less depression and no difference in anxiety or distress. Against specific active programs, no difference was found.

Compared with nonspecific active control programs [1]; specific active programs such as exercise or other psychological programs [1]; drugs, exercise and other behavioral therapies [3]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Against nonspecific active control conditions, mindfulness programs improved depression (SMD -0.46, 95% CI -0.81 to -0.10, 6 trials), with no statistically significant evidence for anxiety or distress and no reliable data on well-being. Against specific active control conditions there was no statistically significant evidence of superiority [1]. A review of 47 trials limited to active controls found no evidence that meditation programs were better than any active treatment, including drugs, exercise and other behavioral therapies [3].
Population
Adults in nonclinical settings in 136 trials [1]. 3,515 participants with a range of clinical conditions in 47 trials [3].
Sources
[1], [3]
Caveats
Few trials made each active comparison, so a small difference could be missed [1]. "No better than" an active treatment can mean equal to it, which is how the review reads it [3].
Limited

Inflammation and C-reactive protein

Mixed results: one meta-analysis found C-reactive protein fell against active controls, while a review of trials found a fall in three of six that measured it.

Compared with active control groups [17]; waiting list, usual care and active control groups [18]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Across 45 trials against active controls, meditation reduced cortisol, C-reactive protein, blood pressure, heart rate, triglycerides and tumor necrosis factor alpha [17]. In a systematic review of 20 randomized trials, six measured C-reactive protein. One found a reduction and two found a trend toward reduction. The reviewers called the immune findings tentative and heterogeneous [18].
Population
Participants in 45 randomized trials [17]. Participants in 20 randomized trials, including people with cancer, HIV and ulcerative colitis [18].
Sources
[17], [18]
Caveats
The meta-analysis abstract gives no effect sizes [17]. Assay methods and populations varied widely [18].

Not shown to help3

Moderate

Focus and attention, against active programs

Not shown to improve attention or thinking skills more than active comparison programs, in two meta-analyses.

Compared with active comparators [19]; active control programs [3]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Mindfulness programs did not outperform active comparators on objective cognitive tests [19]. A review limited to active controls found low evidence of no effect, or insufficient evidence, for attention [3].
Population
2,931 adults in 56 studies [19]. 3,515 participants in 47 trials [3].
Sources
[19], [3]
Caveats
Few trials measured attention against an active control, so a small effect could be missed.
Limited

Brain structure

One trial of 218 people found no change in gray matter volume, density or cortical thickness after an 8-week mindfulness course.

Compared with waiting list [21]; a matched active control program [21]

The numbers and sources
Effect
In two combined three-arm randomized trials, MRI scans before and after found no evidence that mindfulness-based stress reduction changed gray matter volume, gray matter density or cortical thickness compared with either control, at the whole-brain level or in regions named by earlier studies [21].
Population
218 meditation-naive adults: 75 in the mindfulness course, 73 in the active control, 70 on a waiting list [21].
Sources
[21]
Caveats
Eight weeks of practice. It does not test people who have meditated for years. The authors note earlier positive studies lacked active controls and randomization [21].
LimitedStudied in children

School mindfulness lessons for teenagers

One trial of 8,376 students aged 11 to 14 found school mindfulness lessons did not lower risk for depression or raise well-being at 1 year.

Compared with usual social-emotional teaching [22]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Against teaching as usual, the standardized mean differences at 1 year were 0.005 (95% CI -0.05 to 0.06) for depression risk, 0.02 for social-emotional-behavioral functioning and 0.02 for well-being. No intervention-related adverse events were observed [22].
Population
8,376 students aged 11 to 14 in 84 UK schools [22].
Sources
[22]
Caveats
Ten classroom lessons for whole year groups, not an 8-week course people chose to join [22].
Why limited
This rests on one trial, of 8,376 people. Strength counts independent studies that agree, so one trial is limited at any size.

Protocols studied

Mindfulness-based stress reduction, the most studied program, ran as 8 weekly 2-hour group sessions in the back pain trial [9], and as a weekly 8-week course in the anxiety disorder trial [4]. Most blood pressure trials of mindfulness ran 8 weeks [13]. Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, run as an 8-week program [23], was studied in people with recurrent depression in full or partial remission [7]. The school trial delivered 10 lessons of psychoeducation and mindfulness practice [22].

Transcendental Meditation, a mantra practice, was studied in its own trials [11]. One review pooled focused attention, open monitoring and automatic self-transcending practices [17], and the nonclinical trials pooled in another used in-person, expert-defined mindfulness programs [1].

Risks

Reported risks3

LimitedVery common

Effects that interfered with daily life

One US survey found 10.6% of people who had ever meditated reported some impairment in daily functioning from it, lasting a month or more for 1.2%.

The numbers and sources
How common
Very common: more than 1 in 10 people.
Effect
Among 434 adults with any meditation experience, 32.3% answered yes to a general question about meditation-related adverse effects and 50.0% endorsed at least one specific effect. Anxiety, traumatic re-experiencing and emotional sensitivity were most common. Effects lasted a month or more for 10.4%. Some impairment of functioning was reported by 10.6%, lasting a month or more for 1.2%. Childhood adversity was linked to higher risk, and people reporting effects were as glad to have meditated as others [25].
Population
434 US adults with lifetime meditation exposure, from a population-based sample of 953 [25].
Sources
[25]
Caveats
A single cross-sectional survey of recalled experience, with no comparison group of people who did not meditate [25].
ModerateCommon

Unpleasant experiences during or after meditation

Shown in a review of 83 studies to occur in 8.3% of people who meditated, most often anxiety, depression and unusual thinking or perception.

The numbers and sources
How common
Common: between 1 in 100 and 1 in 10 people.
Effect
Across 83 studies with 6,703 participants, 55 reported at least one adverse event. Pooled prevalence was 8.3% (95% CI 5% to 12%): 3.7% in experimental studies and 33.2% in observational ones. The most common were anxiety, depression and cognitive anomalies, and events occurred in people with no history of mental health problems [24]. When an independent assessor asked 96 people after mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, 58% reported effects with a negative tone, 37% reported effects that hurt their functioning, and 6% to 14% reported lasting adverse effects [23]. In the anxiety disorder trial, 15.4% in the mindfulness arm had at least one study-related adverse event, against 78.6% on escitalopram [4].
Population
6,703 participants in 83 studies [24]. 96 adults in 8-week courses [23]. 276 adults with anxiety disorders [4].
Sources
[24], [23], [4]
Caveats
Rates depend heavily on how carefully events are asked about. Most trials do not ask: only 7 of 38 pain trials reported whether adverse events were monitored [8].
LimitedHow often is not known

Psychosis and mania

Case reports: 28 published cases of psychosis or mania arising around meditation practice, half with other precipitating factors.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
A review of 19 reports with 28 cases aged 18 to 57 found acute psychosis in 14, schizophrenia in 7, mania with psychotic symptoms in 3 and schizoaffective disorder in 1. Practices included Transcendental Meditation, mindfulness, qigong, Zen and others. Fourteen patients had precipitating factors such as insomnia, not eating, past mental illness, stress or substance use [26].
Population
28 published cases [26].
Sources
[26]
Caveats
Case reports have no denominator, and the authors write that a causal link is difficult to attribute [26].

Claims tested and not found

  1. That an 8-week mindfulness course grows gray matter. Two combined randomized trials in 218 people found no change in gray matter volume, density or cortical thickness against a waiting list or a matched active program [21].
  2. That mindfulness lessons in school protect teenagers' mental health. In 8,376 students, depression risk and well-being at 1 year did not differ from usual teaching [22].
  3. That meditation does more than other active treatments. A review of 47 trials found no evidence that meditation programs were better than drugs, exercise or other behavioral therapies [3], and nonclinical trials found no superiority over specific active programs [1].
  4. That meditation lowers blood pressure through the day and night. In people with raised blood pressure, mindfulness-based stress reduction lowered office readings and did not significantly lower 24-hour, daytime or asleep pressure [12].
  5. That mindfulness sharpens attention. Against active comparators, programs did not improve objective cognitive tests [19], and a review limited to active controls found low evidence of no effect on attention [3].

Sources

  1. Galante J, Friedrich C, Dawson AF, et al. Mindfulness-based programmes for mental health promotion in adults in nonclinical settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. PLoS Medicine. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003481
  2. Khoury B, Sharma M, Rush SE, Fournier C. Mindfulness-based stress reduction for healthy individuals: A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2015.03.009
  3. Goyal M, Singh S, Sibinga EM, et al. Meditation programs for psychological stress and well-being: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Internal Medicine. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018
  4. Hoge EA, Bui E, Mete M, et al. Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction vs Escitalopram for the Treatment of Adults With Anxiety Disorders: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.3679
  5. Goldberg SB, Tucker RP, Greene PA, et al. Mindfulness-based interventions for psychiatric disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.10.011
  6. Khoury B, Lecomte T, Fortin G, et al. Mindfulness-based therapy: a comprehensive meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.05.005
  7. Kuyken W, Warren FC, Taylor RS, et al. Efficacy of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy in Prevention of Depressive Relapse: An Individual Patient Data Meta-analysis From Randomized Trials. JAMA Psychiatry. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.0076
  8. Hilton L, Hempel S, Ewing BA, et al. Mindfulness Meditation for Chronic Pain: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-016-9844-2
  9. Cherkin DC, Sherman KJ, Balderson BH, et al. Effect of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction vs Cognitive Behavioral Therapy or Usual Care on Back Pain and Functional Limitations in Adults With Chronic Low Back Pain: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.2323
  10. Rusch HL, Rosario M, Levison LM, et al. The effect of mindfulness meditation on sleep quality: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.13996
  11. Anderson JW, Liu C, Kryscio RJ. Blood pressure response to transcendental meditation: a meta-analysis. American Journal of Hypertension. 2008. https://doi.org/10.1038/ajh.2007.65
  12. Lee EKP, Yeung NCY, Xu Z, et al. Effect and Acceptability of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Program on Patients With Elevated Blood Pressure or Hypertension: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Hypertension. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1161/hypertensionaha.120.16160
  13. Chen Q, Liu H, Du S. Effect of mindfulness-based interventions on people with prehypertension or hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMC Cardiovascular Disorders. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12872-024-03746-w
  14. Brook RD, Appel LJ, Rubenfire M, et al. Beyond medications and diet: alternative approaches to lowering blood pressure: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Hypertension. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYP.0b013e318293645f
  15. Koncz A, Demetrovics Z, Takacs ZK. Meditation interventions efficiently reduce cortisol levels of at-risk samples: a meta-analysis. Health Psychology Review. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2020.1760727
  16. Johnson BT, Simon TJ, Li C, et al. Mindfulness-based stress reduction interventions and cortisol regulation: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Health Psychology. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0001636
  17. Pascoe MC, Thompson DR, Jenkins ZM, Ski CF. Mindfulness mediates the physiological markers of stress: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.08.004
  18. Black DS, Slavich GM. Mindfulness meditation and the immune system: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12998
  19. Whitfield T, Barnhofer T, Acabchuk R, et al. The Effect of Mindfulness-based Programs on Cognitive Function in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Neuropsychology Review. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-021-09519-y
  20. Schutte NS, Malouff JM. A meta-analytic review of the effects of mindfulness meditation on telomerase activity. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.12.017
  21. Kral TRA, Davis K, Korponay C, et al. Absence of structural brain changes from mindfulness-based stress reduction: Two combined randomized controlled trials. Science Advances. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abk3316
  22. Kuyken W, Ball S, Crane C, et al. Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of universal school-based mindfulness training compared with normal school provision in reducing risk of mental health problems and promoting well-being in adolescence: the MYRIAD cluster randomised controlled trial. Evidence-Based Mental Health. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1136/ebmental-2021-300396
  23. Britton WB, Lindahl JR, Cooper DJ, et al. Defining and measuring meditation-related adverse effects in mindfulness-based programs. Clinical Psychological Science. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702621996340
  24. Farias M, Maraldi E, Wallenkampf KC, Lucchetti G. Adverse events in meditation practices and meditation-based therapies: a systematic review. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.13225
  25. Goldberg SB, Lam SU, Britton WB, Davidson RJ. Prevalence of meditation-related adverse effects in a population-based sample in the United States. Psychotherapy Research. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2021.1933646
  26. Sharma P, Mahapatra A, Gupta R. Meditation-induced psychosis: a narrative review and individual patient data analysis. Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1017/ipm.2019.47

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