What does the research show about menopausal hormone therapy?

Menopausal hormone therapy

Oral hormone therapy cut weekly hot flashes by about 75% over placebo in pooled trials. In the WHI trials it raised bone density and lowered fractures, and did not change all-cause mortality over 18 years. Estrogen plus progestin raised breast cancer, stroke and pulmonary embolism. Muscle mass and strength did not differ from controls.

Add to Bio HackChecked 2026-11-09

Status: Prescription drugs in the US. Estrogen products, alone or with a progestogen, are FDA-approved for moderate to severe hot flashes of menopause, among other menopause indications.
Also called: MHT, HRT, hormone replacement therapy, estrogen, estradiol, conjugated equine estrogens, Premarin, Prempro, medroxyprogesterone, progestin, progesterone, estrogen patch
Taken for: hot flashes, night sweats, menopause symptoms, bone density, fracture prevention, muscle mass, strength, heart health, longevity, mood, joint pain, brain health

Strong several reviews agree · Moderate one review or consistent trials · Limited one or a few small studies · Untested no study in people, listed with what it rests on

Shown to help5

StrongShown to raise bone density in postmenopausal women, with total hip density up 3.7% over 3 years against almost none on placebo.
ModerateShown to cut hot flash frequency about 75% relative to placebo in menopausal women, though placebo alone cut them about 58%.
ModerateShown to lower menopause symptom scores and improve menopause quality of life against controls, with larger effects from estradiol-containing therapy.
ModerateShown to lower fractures in postmenopausal women, 8.6% against 11.1% on placebo, with fewer hip fractures. Overall benefits and harms showed no net benefit.
ModerateShown to lower depressive symptoms slightly in perimenopausal women with depressive symptoms, with no benefit in women not selected for them.

Reported risks10

StrongShown to raise breast cancer with estrogen plus progestin. Results for estrogen alone disagreed, with lower risk in trials and higher risk in observational studies.How often is not known
ModerateShown to raise stroke on estrogen plus progestin, 8 more per 10,000 women a year, with early heart risk also higher. Risk rose most in women 70 and older.How often is not known
ModerateShown to roughly double pulmonary embolism on estrogen plus progestin. In health records, oral therapy was linked to more clots and transdermal therapy was not.How often is not known
ModerateMixed results: one trial found more dementia from 65 on estrogen plus progestin, while observational studies linked earlier, shorter use to lower Alzheimer risk.How often is not known
ModerateShown to raise breast pain and vaginal spotting or bleeding against control in postmenopausal women.How often is not known
ModerateEstrogen plus progestin added 12 major events per 10,000 women a year at 50 to 59 and 38 at 70 to 79. Estrogen alone had 19 fewer and 51 more.How often is not known
LimitedLimited evidence: one trial reported more gallbladder disease and urinary incontinence during estrogen plus progestin, with most risks fading after stopping.How often is not known
LimitedOne trial found worsening headache on estrogen plus progestin in women with and without a migraine history, but not on estrogen alone.How often is not known
LimitedLimited evidence: observational studies linked hormone therapy to lower cervical cancer risk overall but more cervical cell abnormalities.How often is not known
LimitedLimited evidence: two of four observational studies linked hormone therapy to a higher risk of vestibular schwannoma, a benign nerve tumor, without a definitive association.How often is not known

What people take it for, and what was found

Shown to help5

ModerateStudied in women

Hot flashes and night sweats

Shown to cut hot flash frequency about 75% relative to placebo in menopausal women, though placebo alone cut them about 58%.

The numbers and sources

Effect: Oral hormone therapy reduced weekly hot flash frequency by a weighted mean difference of -17.92 against placebo (95% CI -22.86 to -12.99), a 75% reduction relative to placebo (95% CI 64.3 to 82.3). Severity fell with an OR of 0.13 (95% CI 0.07 to 0.23). Women on placebo also had a 57.7% reduction from baseline [1].
Population: 24 double-blind RCTs with 3,329 women, lasting 3 months to 3 years [1].
Sources: [1]
Caveats: The large placebo response means unblinded comparisons overstate the effect. The search ran to 2002, and the trials used fixed oral doses [1].

ModerateStudied in women

Menopause symptom scores and quality of life

Shown to lower menopause symptom scores and improve menopause quality of life against controls, with larger effects from estradiol-containing therapy.

The numbers and sources

Effect: Against controls, hormone therapy lowered the Kupperman menopause index more, by an SMD of -1.21 (95% CI -1.43 to -0.98) in estradiol-containing subgroups and -0.39 (95% CI -0.67 to -0.10) in others. The menopause-specific quality of life score improved by an SMD of -0.43 (95% CI -0.60 to -0.27). Vaginal pH fell (SMD -0.97, 95% CI -1.08 to -0.87) [2].
Population: 5,089 women in 24 RCTs, 3,062 on hormone therapy [2].
Sources: [2]
Caveats: Controls were not all placebo, and one subgroup used acupuncture as the comparison. Treatment-emergent adverse events did not differ (OR 0.93, 95% CI 0.78 to 1.13) [2].

ModerateStudied in women

Fractures

Shown to lower fractures in postmenopausal women, 8.6% against 11.1% on placebo, with fewer hip fractures. Overall benefits and harms showed no net benefit.

The numbers and sources

Effect: In the WHI estrogen plus progestin trial, 8.6% of women on treatment and 11.1% on placebo had a fracture (HR 0.76, 95% CI 0.69 to 0.83). The effect did not differ by age, weight, fall history or baseline bone density [3]. Hip fracture HR was 0.66 (95% CI 0.45 to 0.98), 5 fewer hip fractures per 10,000 person-years [4]. The estrogen-alone trial showed similar results for other outcomes, including fewer hip fractures [5].
Population: 16,608 postmenopausal women aged 50 to 79 with a uterus, followed a mean of 5.6 years [3]; 10,739 women after hysterectomy in the estrogen-alone trial [5].
Sources: [3], [4], [5]
Caveats: Even in women at the highest fracture risk, the global index of benefits and harms showed no net benefit (HR 1.03, 95% CI 0.88 to 1.24) [3]. In a network meta-analysis, fracture events were sparse and often not prespecified outcomes [6].

StrongStudied in women

Bone density

Shown to raise bone density in postmenopausal women, with total hip density up 3.7% over 3 years against almost none on placebo.

The numbers and sources

Effect: In the WHI, total hip bone density rose 3.7% over 3 years on estrogen plus progestin, against 0.14% on placebo [3]. Across 24 RCTs, lumbar bone density improved more on hormone therapy than control (SMD 1.52, 95% CI 1.33 to 1.71), and hip density improved with each regimen studied (SMDs 0.57 to 1.36) [2]. In a network meta-analysis of 16 RCTs, hormone therapy alone and with antiresorptive drugs raised lumbar spine density against control [6].
Population: 1,024 women with bone density measured in the WHI trial [3]; 5,089 women in 24 RCTs [2]; 2,861 postmenopausal women in 16 RCTs [6].
Sources: [3], [2], [6]
Caveats: Bone density is not fracture. Controls in the 24-trial review were not all placebo [2].

ModerateStudied in women

Depressive symptoms in perimenopause

Shown to lower depressive symptoms slightly in perimenopausal women with depressive symptoms, with no benefit in women not selected for them.

The numbers and sources

Effect: In placebo-controlled trials, hormone therapy was associated with a small reduction in depressive symptom severity (SMD -0.23, 95% CI -0.43 to -0.03). No clear difference was seen by route [11].
Population: Perimenopausal women with depressive symptoms in 12 RCTs [11].
Sources: [11]
Caveats: The authors rate certainty as limited [11]. A systematic review of 17 RCTs in younger menopausal women, not selected for depressive symptoms, found no benefit on depression [12].

Not shown to help3

ModerateStudied in women

Long-term mortality

Not shown to change death from any cause over 18 years in postmenopausal women, 27.1% against 27.6% on placebo.

The numbers and sources

Effect: Over 18 years of cumulative follow-up, all-cause mortality was 27.1% with hormone therapy and 27.6% with placebo (HR 0.99, 95% CI 0.94 to 1.03). Cardiovascular mortality HR was 1.00 (95% CI 0.92 to 1.08) and cancer mortality 1.03 (95% CI 0.95 to 1.12). During the treatment phase, the HR for all-cause mortality in women aged 50 to 59 relative to women aged 70 to 79 was 0.61 (95% CI 0.43 to 0.87) [7].
Population: 27,347 postmenopausal women aged 50 to 79 in both WHI trials, treated a median of 5.6 or 7.2 years [7].
Sources: [7]
Caveats: Post-treatment follow-up was observational. The age comparison is a ratio of nominal hazard ratios.

ModerateStudied in women

Muscle mass

Not shown to preserve lean mass in postmenopausal women, with no consistent benefit across trials.

The numbers and sources

Effect: Women on hormone therapy lost 0.06 kg less lean body mass than controls (95% CI -0.05 to 0.18), not a significant difference. Results were unchanged by treatment type, dose, duration or time since menopause [8]. A 2025 systematic review counted 7 of 12 RCTs suggesting more muscle on scans with hormone therapy, and found no consistent evidence of benefit overall [9].
Population: 12 RCTs with 4,474 women, mean age 59, median follow-up 2 years [8]; 15 RCTs and 28 observational studies of community-dwelling women [9].
Sources: [8], [9]
Caveats: GRADE quality of evidence was low [8]. The systematic review rated risk of bias high to severe, and most data were over 20 years old [9].

StrongStudied in women

Muscle strength

Not shown to increase muscle strength in postmenopausal women, though very high variation leaves a small effect possible.

The numbers and sources

Effect: Hormone therapy was not associated with strength gain (SMD 0.352, 95% CI -0.098 to 0.803, I² 95.3%). Results were unchanged by treatment type, muscle group and duration [10]. A 2025 systematic review found 2 of 6 RCTs suggesting better grip strength and 1 of 6 better physical performance, with no consistent evidence of benefit [9].
Population: 9 RCTs with 2,476 postmenopausal women [10]; 15 RCTs and 28 observational studies [9].
Sources: [10], [9]
Caveats: Heterogeneity was very high, so a small effect cannot be ruled out. The systematic review rated risk of bias high to severe [9].

Doses studied

Both WHI trials used conjugated equine estrogens at 0.625 mg a day. The trial in women with a uterus added medroxyprogesterone acetate at 2.5 mg a day in the same tablet [4][5]. The hot flash trials used fixed oral doses of estrogen alone or with a progestogen [1].

Risks

Reported risks7

StrongStudied in womenHow often is not known

Breast cancer

Shown to raise breast cancer with estrogen plus progestin. Results for estrogen alone disagreed, with lower risk in trials and higher risk in observational studies.

The numbers and sources

How common: How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect: In the WHI trial, estrogen plus progestin raised invasive breast cancer (206 vs 155 cases, HR 1.24, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.53), and some excess persisted after stopping (HR 1.28, 95% CI 1.11 to 1.48). Estrogen alone did not raise it (104 vs 135 cases, HR 0.79, 95% CI 0.61 to 1.02) [5]. In pooled prospective studies, every type except vaginal estrogen was associated with higher risk. For current use in years 1 to 4, the RR was 1.60 (95% CI 1.52 to 1.69) for estrogen plus progestogen and 1.17 (95% CI 1.10 to 1.26) for estrogen alone. In years 5 to 14 the RRs were 2.08 (95% CI 2.02 to 2.15) and 1.33 (95% CI 1.28 to 1.37) [13]. A 2026 meta-analysis of 34 studies found the risk confined to estrogen plus progestin (OR 1.44, 95% CI 1.26 to 1.64), with no overall association for estrogen alone (OR 1.00, 95% CI 0.91 to 1.10). In its randomized trials, estrogen alone was linked to lower risk (OR 0.78, 95% CI 0.70 to 0.87) [14].
Population: 16,608 and 10,739 women in the two WHI trials [5]; 108,647 postmenopausal women with breast cancer in worldwide prospective studies [13]; 34 studies [14].
Sources: [5], [13], [14]
Caveats: The trial and observational results disagree for estrogen alone. The 2026 meta-analysis found high heterogeneity overall (I² 92.4%) and marked differences by region [14]. The pooled studies estimate that 5 years of use from age 50 adds about 1 case per 50 users of estrogen plus daily progestogen and 1 per 200 users of estrogen alone, if the associations are causal [13].

ModerateStudied in womenHow often is not known

Heart disease and stroke

Shown to raise stroke on estrogen plus progestin, 8 more per 10,000 women a year, with early heart risk also higher. Risk rose most in women 70 and older.

The numbers and sources

How common: How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect: In the 2002 report of estrogen plus progestin, hazard ratios were 1.29 (95% CI 1.02 to 1.63) for coronary heart disease and 1.41 (95% CI 1.07 to 1.85) for stroke, or 7 more heart events and 8 more strokes per 10,000 person-years [4]. Over the full treatment phase the coronary HR was 1.18 (95% CI 0.95 to 1.45). With estrogen alone it was 0.94 (95% CI 0.78 to 1.14) [5]. In WHI women with moderate or severe hot flashes, atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease did not differ from placebo at ages 50 to 59 (HR 0.85 on estrogen alone, 0.84 on estrogen plus progestin) but rose at 70 and older (HR 1.95, 95% CI 1.06 to 3.59, and 3.22, 95% CI 1.36 to 7.63) [15]. On estrogen plus progestin, coronary risk was similar to placebo with untreated LDL under 130 mg/dL (HR 0.59, 95% CI 0.31 to 1.10) and more than doubled at 190 mg/dL or higher (HR 2.77, 95% CI 1.42 to 5.40) [16].
Population: 16,608 women with a uterus and 10,739 women after hysterectomy, aged 50 to 79 [4][5]; secondary analyses of the same 27,347 women [15][16].
Sources: [4], [5], [15], [16]
Caveats: Women aged 50 to 59 on estrogen alone had more favorable results for heart attack than older women [5]. The hot flash and lipid results are secondary analyses of subgroups [15][16].

ModerateStudied in womenHow often is not known

Blood clots

Shown to roughly double pulmonary embolism on estrogen plus progestin. In health records, oral therapy was linked to more clots and transdermal therapy was not.

The numbers and sources

How common: How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect: In the WHI trial, pulmonary embolism HR was 2.13 (95% CI 1.39 to 3.25), 8 more per 10,000 person-years [4]. In UK health records, oral therapy was associated with more venous thromboembolism (adjusted OR 1.58, 95% CI 1.52 to 1.64), highest for conjugated equine estrogen with medroxyprogesterone (2.10, 95% CI 1.92 to 2.31). Transdermal therapy was not associated with higher risk (0.93, 95% CI 0.87 to 1.01) [17].
Population: 16,608 women in the WHI trial [4]; 80,396 women aged 40 to 79 with a clot and 391,494 matched controls [17].
Sources: [4], [17]
Caveats: The route comparison comes from case-control data, not a randomized trial.

LimitedHow often is not known

Gallbladder disease and incontinence

Limited evidence: one trial reported more gallbladder disease and urinary incontinence during estrogen plus progestin, with most risks fading after stopping.

The numbers and sources

How common: How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect: During estrogen plus progestin treatment, the WHI reported more gallbladder disease and more urinary incontinence. Most risks faded after stopping [5].
Population: WHI trial participants aged 50 to 79 [5].
Sources: [5]
Caveats: The abstract lists these without event counts.

LimitedStudied in womenHow often is not known

Headache

One trial found worsening headache on estrogen plus progestin in women with and without a migraine history, but not on estrogen alone.

The numbers and sources

How common: How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect: In the WHI trials, estrogen plus progestin was associated with worsening headache over 1 year in women with a migraine history (aRR 1.53, 95% CI 1.14 to 2.03) and without one (aRR 1.18, 95% CI 1.07 to 1.30). Estrogen alone was not associated with worsening headache in women with a migraine history (aRR 0.98, 95% CI 0.71 to 1.34) [20].
Population: 22,876 women, average age 64, in the two WHI trials [20].
Sources: [20]
Caveats: A secondary analysis of self-reported headache, using oral conjugated estrogens [20].

ModerateStudied in womenHow often is not known

Breast tenderness and vaginal bleeding

Shown to raise breast pain and vaginal spotting or bleeding against control in postmenopausal women.

The numbers and sources

How common: How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect: In a network meta-analysis, hormone therapy alone was associated with higher risks of breast pain and vaginal spotting or bleeding than control [6].
Population: 2,861 postmenopausal women in 16 RCTs [6].
Sources: [6]
Caveats: The abstract does not give the rates [6].

ModerateStudied in womenHow often is not known

Overall balance of events by age

Estrogen plus progestin added 12 major events per 10,000 women a year at 50 to 59 and 38 at 70 to 79. Estrogen alone had 19 fewer and 51 more.

The numbers and sources

How common: How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect: On the WHI global index, estrogen plus progestin gave 12 excess events per 10,000 women a year at ages 50 to 59 and 38 at ages 70 to 79. Estrogen alone gave 19 fewer events at ages 50 to 59 and 51 more at ages 70 to 79 [5].
Population: 27,347 women in both WHI trials [5].
Sources: [5]
Caveats: The global index weights heart disease, breast cancer, stroke, pulmonary embolism, colorectal and endometrial cancer, hip fracture and death equally.

Mixed results3

ModerateHow often is not known

Dementia and Alzheimer disease

Mixed results: one trial found more dementia from 65 on estrogen plus progestin, while observational studies linked earlier, shorter use to lower Alzheimer risk.

The numbers and sources

How common: How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect: During estrogen plus progestin treatment, the WHI reported more dementia in women aged 65 and over [5]. A meta-analysis of mostly observational studies linked estrogen plus progestogen (OR 1.13, 95% CI 1.05 to 1.21) and progestogen alone (OR 1.13, 95% CI 1.10 to 1.17) to higher Alzheimer risk. Use for 3 to 5 years (RR 0.56, 95% CI 0.34 to 0.93) and starting within 5 years of menopause (RR 0.70, 95% CI 0.49 to 0.99) were linked to lower risk in cohort studies [18]. Ten years after a 4-year trial in recently menopausal women, amyloid on PET and brain MRI measures did not differ from placebo [19].
Population: WHI trial participants aged 50 to 79 [5]; 7,710,379 women in 3 RCTs, 12 cohort and 16 case-control studies [18]; 266 women followed after the KEEPS trial [19].
Sources: [5], [18], [19]
Caveats: The WHI abstract lists dementia without event counts [5]. The meta-analysis associations come mainly from observational designs [18]. The KEEPS follow-up measured brain scans, not dementia [19].

LimitedStudied in womenHow often is not known

Cervical cancer

Limited evidence: observational studies linked hormone therapy to lower cervical cancer risk overall but more cervical cell abnormalities.

The numbers and sources

How common: How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect: In observational studies, current or continued hormone therapy was associated with lower cervical cancer risk overall (OR 0.70, 95% CI 0.58 to 0.85) and with more cervical cell abnormalities (OR 1.38, 95% CI 1.22 to 1.55). Adenocarcinoma odds were higher (OR 1.82, 95% CI 0.91 to 3.65), and squamous cell carcinoma odds lower (OR 0.74, 95% CI 0.57 to 0.96) [21].
Population: 5 cohort and 4 case-control studies, 60 to 584,742 women each [21].
Sources: [21]
Caveats: Observational only. The adenocarcinoma interval includes no difference, and subtype explained much of the heterogeneity [21].

LimitedHow often is not known

Vestibular schwannoma

Limited evidence: two of four observational studies linked hormone therapy to a higher risk of vestibular schwannoma, a benign nerve tumor, without a definitive association.

The numbers and sources

How common: How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect: Of 4 studies, two reported a higher relative risk of vestibular schwannoma, a benign nerve tumor, in people who had ever used hormone therapy. One found incidence 2.2 times the expected rate, and one found 10% higher odds [22].
Population: 4 observational studies [22].
Sources: [22]
Caveats: The authors describe a lack of a definitive association [22].

Claims tested and not found

That hormone therapy preserves muscle mass after menopause. Lean mass loss did not differ from controls across 12 RCTs [8].
That hormone therapy builds strength after menopause. Strength did not differ from controls across 9 RCTs [10].
That estrogen plus progestin prevents heart disease. Coronary heart disease was higher, not lower, in the WHI trial [4][5].
That starting hormone therapy before 60 protects the heart or brain. A systematic review of 17 RCTs in younger menopausal women found no benefit on cardiovascular disease, cancer, depression or cognition, apart from some cardiovascular endpoints on estrogen alone in the WHI that other trials did not confirm [12]. Ten years after a 4-year trial, amyloid and brain MRI measures did not differ from placebo [19].
That hormone therapy relieves joint and muscle pain. A meta-analysis of 57 studies found no difference in general musculoskeletal pain between ever and never users (RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.96 to 1.04) [23].

Sources

MacLennan AH, Broadbent JL, Lester S, et al. Oral oestrogen and combined oestrogen/progestogen therapy versus placebo for hot flushes. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2004. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD002978.pub2
Tang Y, Ma R, Zhang L, et al. Effectiveness and safety of hormone replacement therapy in the treatment of menopausal syndrome: a meta-analysis. American Journal of Translational Research. 2025. https://doi.org/10.62347/uglt3830
Cauley JA, et al. Effects of Estrogen Plus Progestin on Risk of Fracture and Bone Mineral Density: The Women's Health Initiative Randomized Trial. JAMA. 2003. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.290.13.1729
Writing Group for the Women's Health Initiative Investigators. Risks and Benefits of Estrogen Plus Progestin in Healthy Postmenopausal Women: Principal Results From the Women's Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Trial. JAMA. 2002. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.288.3.321
Manson JE, Chlebowski RT, Stefanick ML, et al. Menopausal Hormone Therapy and Health Outcomes During the Intervention and Extended Poststopping Phases of the Women's Health Initiative Randomized Trials. JAMA. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.278040
Wang X, Hu X, Chen J. Menopausal hormone therapy combined with antiresorptive therapy for skeletal outcomes in postmenopausal women: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Menopause. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1097/gme.0000000000002924
Manson JE, Aragaki AK, Rossouw JE, et al. Menopausal Hormone Therapy and Long-term All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality: The Women's Health Initiative Randomized Trials. JAMA. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.11217
Javed AA, Mayhew AJ, Shea AK, et al. Association Between Hormone Therapy and Muscle Mass in Postmenopausal Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Network Open. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.10154
Österdahl MF, Ni Lochlainn M, Welch C, et al. Systematic review on the relationship between menopausal hormone replacement therapy, sarcopenia, and sarcopenia-related parameters. Maturitas. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2025.108609
Xu Y, Deng KL, Xing TF, et al. Effect of hormone therapy on muscle strength in postmenopausal women: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Menopause. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1097/gme.0000000000001538
Li Y, Sun Y, Bi Y, et al. Efficacy and safety of menopausal hormone therapy for depressive symptoms in perimenopausal women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2026.121892
Bencivenga PA, Fort N, Fugh-Berman A, et al. The effects of menopausal hormone therapy on cardiovascular disease, cancer, cognition and depression in younger women: A systematic review. JRSM Open. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1177/20542704261455970
Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Type and timing of menopausal hormone therapy and breast cancer risk: individual participant meta-analysis of the worldwide epidemiological evidence. The Lancet. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)31709-X
Wu Q, Shen L, Hu S, et al. Relationship between menopausal hormone therapy and incidence risk of breast cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis. Annals of Medicine. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1080/07853890.2026.2640244
Rossouw JE, Aragaki AK, Manson JE, et al. Menopausal Hormone Therapy and Cardiovascular Diseases in Women With Vasomotor Symptoms: A Secondary Analysis of the Women's Health Initiative Randomized Clinical Trials. JAMA Internal Medicine. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2025.4510
Rossouw JE, Aragaki AK, Manson JE, et al. Influence of Cardiometabolic Status on Cardiovascular Effects of Oral Menopausal Hormone Therapy. Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1097/aog.0000000000006381
Vinogradova Y, Coupland C, Hippisley-Cox J. Use of hormone replacement therapy and risk of venous thromboembolism: nested case-control studies using the QResearch and CPRD databases. BMJ. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k4810
Song Q, Wang Q, Wu D, et al. Association between duration, initiation time, routes, and formulations of menopausal hormone therapy use and Alzheimer disease in women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpet.2025.103554
Kantarci K, Kara F, Tosakulwong N, et al. Long-term amyloid PET and MRI outcomes in a menopausal hormone therapy trial. Alzheimer's & Dementia. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.71067
Crowe HM, Madsen TE, Rich-Edwards JW, et al. Menopausal hormone therapy, migraine history, and headache severity: Results from the Women's Health Initiative Hormone Therapy clinical trials. Headache. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1111/head.70168
Zhou Y, Wei J, Ruan Y. The effect of hormone replacement therapy on cervical cancer risk in perimenopausal women: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Frontiers in Oncology. 2025. https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2025.1621570
Amaral MVGCC, Bahmad F. Estrogenic/Progestin therapy and the development of Vestibular Schwannoma: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Brazilian Journal of Otorhinolaryngology. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjorl.2025.101706
Overton R, Amini P, Chew A, et al. The effect of hormone replacement therapy on musculoskeletal pain in menopausal women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Post Reproductive Health. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1177/20533691251403087

Everything in the library