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Pet ownership

Meta-analyses of cohorts link pet and dog ownership to fewer cardiovascular deaths, with mixed results for death from any cause. Dog owners walk more, and getting a dog added steps for a few months. Pets were not linked to depression. Childhood dog exposure was linked to less eczema, with mixed results for asthma. Pets were tied to falls.

Checked 2026-11-13
Status
A daily life factor, not a product.
Also called
owning a pet, pet owner, dog ownership, dog owner, owning a dog, cat ownership, cat owner, dog walking, walking the dog, companion animal, getting a dog, adopting a dog, pets and children, pets and allergies
Studied for
living longer, heart health, lower blood pressure, more walking and physical activity, less loneliness, mood, depression, fewer allergies in children

Strong several reviews agree · Moderate one review or consistent trials · Limited one or a few small studies · Untested no study in people, listed with what it rests on

Shown to help3

Reported risks3

What it was studied for, and what was found

Shown to help3

Moderate

Cardiovascular death

Linked to about 19% to 31% fewer cardiovascular deaths in pet or dog owners in two meta-analyses of cohorts. One review found no link for dogs alone.

Compared with people without a dog [1]; people without pets [2]; people without a dog, in single- and multiple-person households [3]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Dog ownership was linked to 31% lower cardiovascular death (RR 0.69, 95% CI 0.67 to 0.71) [1]. Pet owners had lower cardiovascular death after adjustment (HR 0.81, 95% CI 0.68 to 0.97), and cat owners too (HR 0.79, 95% CI 0.63 to 0.99), while dog ownership showed no significant link [2]. In a Swedish registry cohort, dog ownership was linked to lower cardiovascular death in single-person households (HR 0.64, 95% CI 0.59 to 0.70) and multiple-person households (HR 0.85, 95% CI 0.81 to 0.90) [3].
Population
3,837,005 participants in 10 studies, mean follow-up 10.1 years [1]. 26 studies [2]. 3,432,153 Swedish adults followed up to 12 years [3].
Sources
[1], [2], [3]
Caveats
Observational. People in better health are more able to keep and walk a dog, which is reverse causation. The first review did not adjust for confounders [1]. In the Swedish twin subsample, the lower risk was not replicated [3].
Moderate

Walking and physical activity

Linked to more walking in dog owners in one meta-analysis. In a controlled study, getting a dog added about 2,600 daily steps at 3 months, gone by 8 months.

Compared with people without a dog [5]; people who delayed getting a dog and people with no plans to get one [6]; young people without a family dog [7]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Dog owners walked more (d 0.26) and were more physically active (d 0.16) than non-owners. About 60% of owners walked their dog, a median 160 minutes and 4 walks a week [5]. People who got a dog took 2,589 more steps a day at 3 months (p = 0.004), and the gain was not maintained at 8 months [6]. In children and teenagers, 7 of 9 studies found more activity with a family dog [7].
Population
29 studies, mostly cross-sectional, mostly in Australia and the US [5]. 71 adults, 17 of whom got a dog, followed 8 months [6]. 9 studies of youth [7].
Sources
[5], [6], [7]
Caveats
Most studies were cross-sectional, and active people may choose dogs. The controlled study let people choose their group and was small [6].
ModerateStudied in children

Eczema in children

Linked to about 28% less eczema in children exposed to dogs in one meta-analysis of birth cohorts. Cat exposure was not linked.

Compared with children not exposed to dogs, cats or pets [12]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Exposure to dogs (RR 0.72, 95% CI 0.61 to 0.85) and to pets overall (RR 0.75, 95% CI 0.67 to 0.85) was linked to less atopic dermatitis. Exposure to cats was not (RR 0.94, 95% CI 0.76 to 1.16) [12].
Population
Children in 21 birth cohorts, 26 publications, exposed during pregnancy, infancy or childhood [12].
Sources
[12]
Caveats
Observational. Families with allergies may avoid getting pets, which can make pets look protective. Heterogeneity was moderate (I² 46% for dogs) [12].

Mixed results3

Moderate

Death from any cause

Mixed results: one meta-analysis linked dog ownership to 24% fewer deaths, another found no adjusted link for pets or dogs, and most older-adult cohorts found none.

Compared with people without a dog [1]; people without pets [2]; people without a dog [3]; older adults without pets [4]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Dog ownership was linked to 24% lower death from any cause (RR 0.76, 95% CI 0.67 to 0.86), and to 65% lower death in people with prior coronary events (RR 0.35, 95% CI 0.17 to 0.69) [1]. Pet owners had lower death rates unadjusted (HR 0.73, 95% CI 0.62 to 0.87) but not after adjustment (HR 0.40, 95% CI 0.04 to 3.78), and dog ownership was not significantly linked [2]. In Sweden, dog owners had lower death rates living alone (HR 0.67) and with others (HR 0.89) [3]. In older adults, 2 of 6 studies found lower death from any cause and 4 found no link [4].
Population
3,837,005 participants in 10 studies [1]. 26 studies [2]. 3,432,153 Swedish adults [3]. Community-dwelling older adults in 26 longitudinal studies from 21 countries and regions [4].
Sources
[1], [2], [3], [4]
Caveats
Observational. The pooled estimates were not adjusted for confounders in the first review [1]. Health, income and living situation shape who owns a pet.
Moderate

Loneliness

Mixed results: a review linked pets to less social isolation but not clearly to less loneliness before COVID-19. One small study found loneliness fell after getting a dog.

Compared with people without pets [8]; people who delayed getting a dog and people with no plans to get one [9]

The numbers and sources
Effect
In adults, pet ownership was linked to lower social isolation. Studies of loneliness found no overall significant link before COVID-19, and mostly lower loneliness after it. In children and adolescents, pets were linked to less loneliness. Most studies found no difference between dogs, cats and other pets [8]. After getting a dog, UCLA Loneliness Scale scores fell 8.41 points (95% CI -16.57 to -0.26) at 3 months and 7.12 points (95% CI -12.55 to -1.69) at 8 months, on a 0 to 60 scale [9].
Population
24 observational studies [8]. 71 Australian adults, 17 of whom got a dog [9].
Sources
[8], [9]
Caveats
Only part of the reviewed studies found a link [8]. The controlled study was small, groups were self-selected, and positive and negative mood did not change in dog owners [9].
Moderate

Blood pressure

Mixed results: pet owners had slightly lower systolic pressure and heart rate in one meta-analysis but no less hypertension, and getting a dog did not change blood pressure.

Compared with people without pets [2]; people who delayed getting a dog and people with no plans to get one [6]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Pet owners had lower heart rate (mean difference -2.32), mean arterial pressure (-2.60) and systolic pressure (-1.69 mmHg, 95% CI -3.06 to -0.31), with no difference in diastolic pressure (-0.23) or in the share with hypertension [2]. Systolic and diastolic pressure, resting heart rate and VO2max did not change after getting a dog [6].
Population
26 studies [2]. 71 adults followed 8 months [6].
Sources
[2], [6]
Caveats
The pooled differences are between groups measured once, and are small. The controlled study was small [6].

Not shown to help1

Strong

Depression

Not linked to depression in pet owners in a meta-analysis of 21 studies, or in older dog owners in a systematic review.

Compared with people without pets [10]; older adults without a dog [11]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Pet ownership was not linked to depression (OR 1.03, 95% CI 0.995 to 1.07). Dog ownership was not linked (OR 0.93, 95% CI 0.789 to 1.10), and cat ownership was linked to slightly higher risk (OR 1.06, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.09) [10]. In community-dwelling adults aged 70 and over, having a dog was not linked to depressive symptoms, and regular contact with a dog was linked to fewer anxiety symptoms [11].
Population
159,322 participants in 21 studies [10]. 25,138 older adults in 5 cross-sectional studies and 1 controlled before-and-after study [11].
Sources
[10], [11]
Caveats
Observational and mostly cross-sectional. People may get a pet for support when already low, which can hide or reverse a link.

Amounts studied

Cohorts recorded whether a person owned a dog or other pet at the start of follow-up [1], in Sweden from national dog registers [3]. In Sweden, 13.1% of adults owned a dog [3]. About 60% of dog owners walked their dog, a median 4 walks and 160 minutes a week [5]. The controlled study followed adults who got a dog within 1 month of the start for 8 months [6]. Studies of children recorded cat and dog ownership during pregnancy and early childhood, and the number of pets [12][13].

Risks

Reported risks2

LimitedHow often is not known

Falls caused by pets

Case series: US emergency departments saw an estimated 86,629 fall injuries a year involving cats and dogs, most often fractures and bruises, highest in people 75 and older.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
Dogs were involved in 7.5 times as many fall injuries as cats, and women were 2.1 times as likely as men to be injured. About 66.4% of cat-related and 31.3% of dog-related falls came from tripping over the pet, and 21.2% of dog-related falls from being pushed or pulled, as during dog walking [16].
Population
7,456 emergency department cases, 2001 to 2006, in a nationally representative US sample [16].
Sources
[16]
Caveats
The count is not a rate among pet owners, so how often owners fall is not known [16].
LimitedHow often is not known

Depression in cat owners

Linked to slightly higher odds of depression in cat owners, 6%, in a subgroup analysis of one meta-analysis that found no link for pets overall.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
Cat ownership was linked to depression (OR 1.06, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.09), while pets overall (OR 1.03) and dogs (OR 0.93) were not [10].
Population
159,322 participants in 21 observational studies [10].
Sources
[10]
Caveats
A sensitivity analysis within one review, with a small effect. Observational, and the direction of the link is unknown.

Mixed results1

ModerateStudied in childrenHow often is not known

Childhood asthma

Mixed results: one meta-analysis linked cats and dogs to slightly more childhood asthma, another of 77,434 children found no link, and a review found less allergy.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
Cat ownership (OR 1.18, 95% CI 1.05 to 1.33) and dog ownership (OR 1.12, 95% CI 1.00 to 1.24) were linked to childhood asthma [14]. In nine European birth cohorts, early-life cat (OR 0.97, 95% CI 0.87 to 1.09) and dog ownership (OR 0.92, 95% CI 0.85 to 1.01) were not linked to school-age asthma, but children already sensitized to cats or dogs had much more asthma, and ownership may add to that risk [13]. In 9 urban cohorts, 6 found less allergic disease with perinatal dog or cat exposure, and 2 found more risk only in high-risk groups [15].
Population
1,871,295 children in 60 studies, 42 of them case-control [14]. 77,434 mother and child pairs in 9 birth cohorts, children aged 5 to 11 [13]. 6,498 participants in 9 cohorts [15].
Sources
[14], [13], [15]
Caveats
Observational. Families with allergic parents often avoid pets, which confounds the link, and case-control studies can be biased by recall [15].

Claims tested and not found

  1. That owning a pet protects against depression. Across 21 studies, pet ownership was not linked to depression (OR 1.03, 95% CI 0.995 to 1.07) [10].
  2. That getting a dog lowers blood pressure. In a controlled study, blood pressure and resting heart rate did not change in the 8 months after getting a dog [6].
  3. That early-life cat or dog ownership causes asthma. In 77,434 European children, early ownership was not linked to school-age asthma [13].
  4. That the extra steps from a new dog last. The 2,589 extra daily steps at 3 months were not maintained at 8 months [6].

Related

Social connectionPhysical activityDaily steps

Sources

  1. Kramer CK, Mehmood S, Suen RS. Dog Ownership and Survival: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.119.005554
  2. El-Qushayri AE, Kamel AMA, Faraj HA, et al. Association between pet ownership and cardiovascular risks and mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Cardiovascular Medicine. 2020. https://doi.org/10.2459/JCM.0000000000000920
  3. Mubanga M, Byberg L, Nowak C, et al. Dog ownership and the risk of cardiovascular disease and death, a nationwide cohort study. Scientific Reports. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-16118-6
  4. Feng Z, Lu F, Yang X, et al. Pet ownership, successful aging and mortality: a systematic review of longitudinal studies. The Gerontologist. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnag137
  5. Christian HE, Westgarth C, Bauman A, et al. Dog ownership and physical activity: a review of the evidence. Journal of Physical Activity and Health. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.10.5.750
  6. Powell L, Edwards KM, Bauman A, et al. Does dog acquisition improve physical activity, sedentary behaviour and biological markers of cardiometabolic health? Results from a three-arm controlled study. BMJ Open Sport and Exercise Medicine. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2019-000703
  7. Chase CJ, Mueller MK, Garvey C, Potter K. Family Dog Ownership and Youth Physical Activity Levels: A Scoping Review. Current Sports Medicine Reports. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1249/JSR.0000000000000927
  8. Kretzler B, König HH, Hajek A. Pet ownership, loneliness, and social isolation: a systematic review. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-022-02332-9
  9. Powell L, Edwards KM, McGreevy P, et al. Companion dog acquisition and mental well-being: a community-based three-arm controlled study. BMC Public Health. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-7770-5
  10. Moshfeghinia R, Rostamipourfard S, Kamran M, et al. Pet ownership and risk of depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Annals of General Psychiatry. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12991-025-00600-x
  11. Maurice C, Engels C, Canouï-Poitrine F, et al. Dog ownership and mental health among community-dwelling older adults: A systematic review. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.5815
  12. Pelucchi C, Galeone C, Bach JF, La Vecchia C, Chatenoud L. Pet exposure and risk of atopic dermatitis at the pediatric age: a meta-analysis of birth cohort studies. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2013.04.009
  13. Pinot de Moira A, Strandberg-Larsen K, Bishop T, et al. Associations of early-life pet ownership with asthma and allergic sensitization: A meta-analysis of more than 77,000 children from the EU Child Cohort Network. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2022.01.023
  14. Ji X, Yao Y, Zheng P, Hao C. The relationship of domestic pet ownership with the risk of childhood asthma: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Pediatrics. 2022. https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2022.953330
  15. Lodge CJ, Allen KJ, Lowe AJ, et al. Perinatal cat and dog exposure and the risk of asthma and allergy in the urban environment: a systematic review of longitudinal studies. Clinical and Developmental Immunology. 2012. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/176484
  16. Stevens JA, Teh SL, Haileyesus T. Dogs and cats as environmental fall hazards. Journal of Safety Research. 2010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2010.01.001

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